Methodology and Sampling Explained

Respondents: A random share of the general population in each country and an oversampling of individuals with a (Soviet) Russian background. The surveys also include an intergenerational component, i.e., interviews with a young adult and a respective parent whenever possible. This (Soviet) Russian background is defined as follows in Germany and Canada:

• The older generation grew up in (Soviet) Russia and moved abroad at age 18 or later, so their primary socialisation took place in (Soviet) Russia
• The younger generation either grew up entirely in their new country or moved there before the age of 11, so their primary socialisation took place outside of Russia.

Estonia has had a large Russian-speaking population for decades due to Soviet-era relocations. To reflect this long-standing presence, we defined (Soviet) Russian background not only through the parents but also the grandparents. While this older generation was not directly surveyed, their background helped us to identify and to include families with roots in the Russian-speaking community, ensuring a sample that covers the social reality in Estonia.

Why this sample?

In the survey the approach is consciously narrow to avoid mixing very different development trajectories across Eastern Europe after the regime changes of 1989/91. This approach avoids broad generalisations across very different post-Soviet contexts and allows for more meaningful comparisons, both between generations within families and across countries with distinct political and social histories. This sample allows us to understand the socialising impact of the (Soviet) Russian background which matters in today’s geopolitical situation and in light of the specific history of Russia and its various historical forms. Including families with a (Soviet) Russian background alongside the general population allows a comparison how histories are remembered, how values shift, and how people make sense of their place in society.

Participants: Family members – a parent and adult child – from the general population as well as family members with a (Soviet) Russian background living in Germany, Estonia and Canada.

• In the (Soviet) Russian families, many parents grew up in Soviet Russia and moved to one of the three countries after the age of 18. Some participants in Germany were born in other countries of the USSR but indicated a strong sense of connection to Russia. In Estonia, groups included participants from the parental generation who were born in Estonia if their own parents were born in Soviet Russia.
• Adult children were either born or raised in Germany, Estonia or Canada, having moved to the respective country before the age of 15.

Why this sample?

This approach allows us to examine identity formation beyond today’s state boundaries, authoritarian attitudinal legacies across different immigrant generations, and intergenerational perspectives across and within families on the topics of interest. In the context of the focus groups, it is also possible to devote greater attention to understanding narratives of belonging among participants. Orientation towards Moscow was a common feature during Soviet times, therefore a sense of connection to Russia is not limited to those socialised in (Soviet) Russia.

Interview Participants:

• First-generation migrants (G1) from the Russian Federation who left Russia as adults and arrived in Germany before or after February 2022
• Second-generation adults (G2) who identify with today’s Russia due to their family background

Media Analysis:

• Social media actors who explicitly claim a current dual affiliation to both Germany and the Russian Federation, be that due to their migration history and family, their cultural or political interest, or because they were exiled and had to move to Germany.

Why this sample?

For G1, we focus on those socialised in today's Russian Federation, shaped by an authoritarian political climate, a heavily restricted media landscape but also intensive political propaganda and politics of history. For G2, identity and belonging are explored through their own narratives and reflections. These interviews help us understand how perceptions of Russia and "Russianness" evolve after migration.